Some of the discussions about the Prosperity Gospel have touched on the connection of this to witchhunts, but this is an issue that needs to be taken a lot more seriously by Christians generally.
I recommend that anyone concerned with this should read the UNICEF report on children accused of witchcraft. I have given a brief outline of the setting in a blog post on The new face of African Christianity.
Here is the executive summary of the UNICEF document, which I think everyone should read, and those who are especially concerned with Christianity in Africa should, if possible, read the whole thing, not necessarily to agree with everything in it, but it should be part of the conversation.
Unicef report on witch children in Africa
Executive summary
Introduction
This study addresses the issue of children who are victims of violence and mistreatment due to local beliefs, representations and practices, in particular, relating to witchcraft. While the harmful consequences of these beliefs have been publicised internationally, their origins often remain unclear. The objective of the present document, therefore, is to reveal and analyse the diversity and complexity of these phenomena — often falsely associated with “African tradition” — related to beliefs in witchcraft and the “mystical” world. Using examples from sub-Saharan Africa, the study aims to clarify the basis for certain social practices that are wholly or partially misunderstood by western observes. This ignorance of local social norms, creates a gulf of misunderstanding between local social actors and the international framework of norms.
Behaviours commonly associated with accusations of witchcraft include violence, mistreatment, abuse, infanticide and the abandonment of children. From a western perspective, such practices are violations of the rights of children. The objective of this study is to understand both the complexity and the variety of the phenomena described, as well as the causes, which are not only cultural and social, but also economic and political. The study targets child protection agencies and aims to promote better understanding of local representations and beliefs, as well as to provide guidance on effective child protection interventions.
Witchcraft accusations against children
Children accused of witchcraft are subject to psychological and physical violence, first by family members and their circle of friends, then by church pastors or traditional healers. Once accused of witchcraft, children are stigmatized and discriminated for life. Increasingly vulnerable and caught in a cycle of accusation, they risk yet further accusations of witchcraft. Children accused of witchcraft may be killed, although more often they are abandoned by their parents and live on the street. A large number of street children have been accused of witchcraft within the family circle. These children are more vulnerable to physical and sexual violence and to abuse by the authorities. In order to survive and to escape appalling living conditions, they use drugs and alcohol. Often victims of sexual exploitation, they are at increased risk of exposure to sexually transmitted diseases and HIV infection.
Belief in witchcraft is widespread across sub-Saharan African countries. It was previously believed that these beliefs and socio-cultural practices would disappear over time, but the current situation indicates the contrary. Far from fading away, these social and cultural representations have been maintained and transformed in order to adapt to contemporary contexts. The notion of “witchcraft” is so flexible and elastic that it is able to integrate into all areas of life, including the most “modern” (Geschiere, 1995). For this reason, contemporary witchcraft can no longer be explained in terms of “African tradition”. Without wishing to ignore the history and culture of witchcraft, the current forms of belief are more a product of an “invented tradition” (Hobsbawm, 2006), or perhaps a reinvented tradition. Furthermore, the notion of witchcraft today covers a multitude of clearly distinct “occult” phenomena that should be understood in their specific context.
The notion of witchcraft, despite its suggestion of multiple abilities, can perhaps be defined, in a large majority of African countries, as the ability to harm someone through the use of mystical power. Consequently, the sorcerer or witch embodies this wicked persona, driven to commit evil deeds under the influence of the force of witchcraft. Accusations are still the most visible manifestations of belief in witchcraft. Without denying this belief, the violent nature of accusations deserves greater attention from governments and local and international non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Whereas in the past, elderly people, particularly women, were accused, these days the number of children accused of witchcraft is increasing. The frequent accusations are the direct consequence of a generalized climate of “spiritual insecurity” (Ashforth, 2005) that is created notably through spreading the idea of ever-present danger, closely linked with that of witchcraft as the source of all evil. The accusations form part of a general anti-witch movement found within families, churches, as well as State institutions.
Which children are most vulnerable to accusations of witchcraft?
Vulnerable children accused of an act of witchcraft can be divided into three categories. The first category, which includes thousands of children, refers to the urban phenomenon of “child witches”. These children are typically orphans who have lost one or both natural parents; children with a physical disability (or any physical abnormality, including a large head, swollen belly, red eyes, etc.); those with a physical illness (epilepsy, tuberculosis, etc.) or disability (autism, Down Syndrome, etc., or even those who stutter); or especially gifted children. Children showing any unusual behaviour, for example children who are stubborn, aggressive, thoughtful, withdrawn or lazy, also make up this category.
The second category covers children whose birth is considered abnormal, such as the “bad birth” children from the Bight of Benin region. These children may be premature (in the eighth month), or presentation may be in any variety of breech positions, or in the posterior, face-up position during delivery. Also included are twins, who are sometimes associated with the occult, their birth symbolizing the evil or anger of the gods.
The third and final category concerns children with albinism who are killed because of the magic powers supposedly contained in parts of their bodies, including their organs, hair, skin and limbs.
Why are children accused of witchcraft?
There are multiple causes for the recent and growing accusations of witchcraft against children. Anthropologists and social observers are unanimous in recognizing the complexity of economic, political and social factors that contribute to such accusations. The urban phenomenon of “child witches” and the violence that surround them are the result of a “multi-crisis” (De Boeck, 2000). Life in the city, paid employment, consumerism, financial pressure and an emerging individualism have all led to profound transformations in family structures. The result is a dysfunctional family and a disruption of relations between age groups – in particular the legitimacy of parental authority – and between men and women. The changes that have been introduced through development are therefore a challenge to African solidarity.
The political-military situation – civil wars, coups d’etat – has caused considerable loss of life. As a result, there are a large number of orphans that are straining the capacities of their relatives. These children are a particularly vulnerable group. The general impoverishment of populations leads to difficulties with schooling and sometimes even with basic subsistence for children who have to fend for themselves from a very young age. Accusations of witchcraft against children can also be a direct consequence of this inability of families to meet their basic needs. In addition to these economic and political crises, and general impoverishment, there are also institutional crises to consider, such as inadequate health services, weak legal system, and the role of civil society.
The fight against witchcraft
In many countries witchcraft accusations are exploited by revivalist, charismatic or Pentecostal churches. Their pastor-prophets fight against witchcraft in the name of God, identifying witches through visions and dreams, and then offering treatment – divine healing and exorcism – to the supposed witches. This “spiritual” work, often of a violent nature, reinforces beliefs in witchcraft and increases accusations. “The more God’s servants fight against witchcraft, the more they get involved in treating witches, and at the end of the day, the more they extend the resources of witchcraft” (Tonda, 2002) as well as their own income. The persecution of witches has become a lucrative “business” for many pastor-prophets. The actions of the pastor-prophets “complement” those of traditional healers who also fight against the malevolent forces of witchcraft by detecting supposed witches.
In certain sub-Saharan African countries, the fight against witchcraft is officially recognized by the judicial system. In countries where practising witchcraft is considered an offence, those accused may have to appear in court. Those found guilty of witchcraft face imprisonment.
Responses to witchcraft accusations against children
It is impossible to eradicate the acts of violence carried out against children accused of witchcraft without first having studied them in detail. Only a thorough understanding of the systems of representations of specific beliefs, the actions and social mechanisms related to the anti-witch movement (mob justice, churches and traditional healers), and the political, economic and social situation of contemporary African societies will enable the development of effective actions for child protection and awareness-raising with regard to the fundamental rights of the child.
Recommendations
Any response to accusations of witchcraft against children should strengthen national child protection systems that prevent and respond to abuse, exploitation and violence, including improving service provision, legal frameworks and access to justice. Moreover, programming and advocacy interventions should promote social change by raising awareness among families and community leaders, mobilizing and working with legal professionals and regulating churches and traditional healers. The following recommendations highlight strategic priorities for programming.
Strengthen evidence and understanding of witchcraft accusations against children
1. In-depth knowledge of beliefs and practices. Effective programme responses have to be based on and informed by an in-depth understanding of the causes of witchcraft accusations against children. Beliefs in witchcraft, abnormal births, the birth of twins or albinos have to be analysed and understood within the broader cultural, historical, economic and political contexts.
Promote social change through dialogue on witchcraft accusations
2. Support dialogue with religious leaders and traditional healers in order to identify common ground to combat the abuse of children accused of witchcraft and to mobilize religious leaders and traditional healers.
3. Community mobilization and education. Efforts to educate and raise awareness should be done in partnership and dialogue with communities rather than in a top-down manner. Community dialogue can help to bridge the gap between social norms and international human rights norms. It should promote child well-being and safety in a respectful manner and avoid paternalistic education approaches that have failed in the past.
4. Negotiation and mediation between pastors, families and children accused of witchcraft. Negotiation and mediation consists of a dialogue between pastors, families, children accused of witchcraft and organizations defending children’s rights. Pastors are important opinion leaders and have considerable influence over child witchcraft accusations.
Promote access to child and family welfare services for child victims
5. Social protection to strengthen vulnerable families. Provide access to basic services (health, education and social protection) for vulnerable and at-risk children and their families. Reducing poverty and economic stress factors should strengthen the protective role of the family and reduce some of the risk factors associated with witchcraft accusations.
6. Support services, safe spaces and reintegration for children accused of witchcraft. Develop services as part of national child protection systems and avoid creating parallel structures for accused children. Avoid further stigmatization and social isolation of children accused of witchcraft.
7. Develop mechanisms and criteria to determine the best interest of children with regard to temporary placement, family reintegration and permanency planning. Best interest determinations should assess the risks associated with the children’s return to their family and community.
8. Develop reintegration strategies that include an anti-stigma component. Work with families and communities to fight stigmatization and ensure that children can return home in safety.
D. Promote the role of health professionals in protecting children accused of witchcraft
9. Access and quality of health services. Improve the capacities of health workers and the availability and quality of health services as a way to reduce the belief in witchcraft as a cause of illness. Provide public health education on the most common diseases, such as malaria, AIDS, cancer and diabetes. Promote deliveries in hospitals or health centres.
Promote access to the legal system for children accused of witchcraft
10. Promote legal reform to decriminalize witchcraft, allow for the prosecution of persons harming children and provide special protection to children in contact with the law. Decriminalizing witchcraft will prevent children from coming in conflict with the law and all the consequences associated with it. Laws governing the prosecution of persons who accuse and harm children will allow for a more robust response by the legal system. This includes religious leaders and traditional healers involved in practices that harm children.
11. Raise awareness and educate legal professionals. In countries where child protection laws against witchcraft accusations have been introduced but are inadequately applied, training should emphasize respecting and applying the existing laws.
12. Regulate traditional healers and the activities of Pentecostal and Revivalist churches. The issuing of licenses to practice as a traditional healer should come under closer scrutiny. Develop specific laws to regulate harmful practices by churches and religious leaders.
13. Strengthen birth registration
Evaluate promising practices
14. Evaluate, review and monitor existing initiatives to ensure that programmes are informed by evidence of effective approaches and avoid repeating mistakes